Remember the Alamo

Last Sunday, February 23, I saw online that that day marked the beginning of the historical Siege of the Alamo. Like everyone else, I received a general historical education as a child. While I recall some of these names and terms, I decided it would be good for me to refresh myself on the history of the Alamo. I had only vague recollections of the details and importance of this significant historical event, so I began to refresh myself.

The Texas Revolution

The Siege of the Alamo took place as part of a greater movement: the Texas Revolution. The Texas Revolution was a conflict between Mexico and Texas settlers that took place from October 1835 to April 1836. This conflict led to Texas's independence as the Republic of Texas (1836-1845).

Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821 and aimed to control its northern territory, which included the states of Coahuila and Texas, under the 1824 Mexican Constitution. These northern territories were sparsely populated with Mexicans and dominated by Apache and Comanche tribes. The Apache and Comanche tribes were historically fierce, nomadic Native American groups known for their skilled horsemanship and resistance against European colonization. This prompted Mexico to invite American and foreign settlers to the region to beef up the population.

Spain had originally allowed Anglo-American settlement in Texas starting in 1820, and Mexico continued this policy and offered tax and tariff exemptions for seven years under the Imperial Colonization Law of 1823. Green Dewitt and Moses Austin were American empresarios granted large land tracts to settle families in Texas. Moses died before starting, but his son Stephen Austin would later become an important figure in Texas history. In 1826, Austin led a militia to help Mexican forces stop the Fredonian Rebellion, an early independence attempt near Nacogdoches (east Texas) sparked by some early settler disputes.

By April 1830, Mexico banned further Anglo-American settlement in Coahuila and Texas and reinstated tariffs due to an influx of U.S. immigrants. From 1830 to 1832, tensions rose near present-day Houston, leading to the Anahuac Disturbance of 1832. The Anahuac Disturbance involved conflicts over tariffs, smuggling, and immigration enforcement by Mexican officials and troops.

Then, there was the Battle of Velasco on June 26, 1832, a major Texan victory over Mexican forces. After the battle, Mexico withdrew from the garrisons of Texas besides Goliad and San Antonio. At this time, General Antonio López de Santa Anna led a federalist uprising against Mexican President Anastasio Bustamante, and some Texans supported this uprising, hoping it would lead to greater independence. Then, in 1832 and 1833, the Texas settlers held conventions to petition Mexico for tariff exemptions, separation from Coahuila, and the repeal of the immigration ban.

Stephen Austin presented these demands in Mexico City. In response, Mexico lifted the immigration restriction but ignored the other requests. Austin became frustrated with the Mexican government and faced imprisonment for 18 months after they intercepted a letter urging defiance. By 1835, when Austin returned to Texas, the situation had escalated towards open rebellion.

At this time, Santa Anna began shifting toward a centralist stance, moving away from the federalist 1824 Constitution and setting the stage for the Seven Laws of 1836. The Seven Laws of 1836, enacted later that year after the Texas Revolution, were not viewed positively. They consolidated power in the national government, dissolving state legislatures and replacing them with military-led councils, abolished the office of vice president, and extended the president's term to eight years with control over his successor.

In the spring of 1835, Santa Anna crushed dissent in Zacatecas, north-central Mexico, with his "Army of Operations," allowing looting in the area for days. Then, in September 1835, Santa Anna sent General Martín Perfecto de Cos with 300-500 troops to San Antonio to tighten their grip on Texas, fearing the United States would try to annex it.

The Battle of Gonzales on October 2, 1835, marked the war's start as Texans outnumbered the Mexican troops and forced a retreat to San Antonio over a cannon dispute that led to the famous phrase "Come and take it." By mid-October 1835, a Texian army under Stephen Austin besieged San Antonio. In early December 1835, Texans captured San Antonio after a house-to-house assault, forcing Cos and his troops to surrender on December 11 and retreat south of the Rio Grande.

The Alamo

Infuriated by the rebellion, Santa Anna launched a punitive campaign in 1836. His army grew to over 7,000 troops marching North despite the harsh winter. Santa Anna targeted San Antonio, arriving at the Alamo on February 23, 1836.

The Alamo was a former Spanish mission named for its surrounding cottonwood trees. It consisted of three-story adobe buildings and an open plaza enclosed by log walls, with 19 cannons along its defenses. Sam Houston had earlier left the Alamo with most of his forces, thinking it was not strategically beneficial to be there. Meanwhile, the Alamo co-commanders, William Travis and James Bowie, ignored warnings of Santa Anna's approach and failed to prepare a sufficient stockpile of food, supplies, and ammunition.

Santa Anna arrived unexpectedly with an advance force of (an estimated) 1,800-6,000 troops who demanded an unconditional surrender. The Texians responded to the demands with a cannon shot, prompting Santa Anna to order no mercy. Mexican artillery bombarded the Alamo from the south and east, with Texans firing back cannonballs until told to save ammunition while Mexican infantry stayed out of rifle range.

Texas reinforcements slipped through the Mexican lines about twice, bringing the total number of defenders to about 260 men. Travis frequently sent couriers to request aid, but the provisional Texas government couldn't round up even a small force.

By March 3, 1836, Santa Anna had the full army in place and planned a final assault. Before dawn on March 6, four columns of Mexican infantry attacked the Alamo from multiple sides. The Alamo lacked firing ports for its cannons, so the defenders had to fire over the wall, exposing themselves to enemy fire. Due to a shortage of ammunition, Texians began to load their cannons with scrap nails and horseshoes and managed to push back the Mexican assault.

A second Mexican attack was repelled, but Travis was killed during a third wave that breached the weak north wall. When a south-facing cannon was turned to repel the northern assault, Mexican troops climbed over the Southern wall, forcing the defending Texans to retreat to the adobe barracks. As the Texans retreated, the Mexican artillery blasted the doors open. After an hour of close-quarters combat, James Bowie died. The last stand was in the chapel, where a small Texian group fired their final cannon shot before being overwhelmed and killed in hand-to-hand combat. Mexican troops spared the families but executed the surviving fighters. Nearly every Texian defender had died in the fight, including the famous ex-Tennessee congressman Davy Crocket.

Remember the Alamo

Meanwhile, on March 1-3, 1836, a convention at Washington-on-the-Brazos (where Texas declared independence near the Brazos River) drafted and signed a Texas declaration of independence and named Sam Houston army commander. General José de Urrea had been advancing from Matamoros, defeating Texian units at San Patricio on February 27 and Agua Dulce Creek on March 2. Colonel James W. Fannin, commanding troops in Goliad, delayed a retreat ordered by Houston, which ultimately led to his surrender after the Battle of Coleto (March 19-20, 1836). A week later, on March 27, 1836, Santa Anna had 400 of Fannin's men executed in what became known as the Goliad Massacre.

After the Alamo fell, Houston withdrew to the northeast with his troops and civilians as Santa Anna pursued in three directions. On April 21, 1836, Houston's 900-man army ambushed Santa Anna's 1200-1300 troops at the battle of San Jacinto near Lynch's Ferry (in modern Harris County, near the confluence of the San Jacinto River and Buffalo Bayou). Houston's army won in 18 minutes with cries of "Remember the Alamo!" and "Remember Goliad!" Houston reported 630 Mexicans killed and 730 captured, with only 9 Texans lost.

Santa Anna was caught while fleeing and forced to order his army back to Mexico. On May 14, 1836, Santa Anna signed the Treaties of Velasco, a public one recognizing Texas independence and ending the war and also a secret one promising that Mexico would honor it. Having ousted Santa Anna, Mexico's government rejected the treaties and refused to recognize Texas. This would lead to ongoing skirmishes until the Mexican-American War.

As a result of the revolution's success, the Republic of Texas was founded.